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What Is It?
Applied behavior analysis is the process of systematically applying interventions based upon the principles of learning theory to improve socially significant behaviors to a meaningful degree and to demonstrate that the interventions employed are responsible for the improvement in behavior (Baer, Wolf & Risley, 1968; Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayer, 1991).
"Socially significant behaviors" include reading, academics, social skills, communication, and adaptive living skills. Adaptive living skills include gross and fine motor skills, eating and food preparation, toileting, dressing, personal self-care, domestic skills, time and punctuality, money and value, home and community orientation, and work skills.
According to Theory of Mind and the Triad of Perspectives on Autism and Asperger Syndrome - A View From The Bridge by Olga Bogdashina:
Applied Bebavioural Analysis (ABA)
ABA, sometimes referred to as the Lovaas approach, focuses mainly on early intervention (pre-school years). Dr Ivar Lovaas pioneered behavioural interventions for autistic children in the 1960s. The underlying principles of ABA are based on Skinnerian operant conditioning and behavioural discrete trials. The methods involve time-intensive, highly-structured, repetitive drills in which a child is given a command and rewarded each time he responds correctly. Behavioural discrete trial programmes start with achieving general compliance - training to get the child to sit in a chair, make eye contact and imitate non-verbal behaviour in response to verbal commands. Speech is taught as a verbal behaviour via verbal imitation, following one-step commands, receptive discrimination of objects, pictures, etc., and expressive labelling in response to questions. However, a discrete trial approach has proven to be limited - the language 'trained' during the discrete trial fails to be generalized to other environments and to be used spontaneously. It is an intensive (40 hours a week), home-based programme with one-to-one trial training. Parents and other adult helpers share the delivery of the programme. Usuaily,it consists of several stages:
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The first year. The programme focuses on reducing self-stimulatory or aggressive behaviour, developing compliance, encouraging imitation and play.
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The second year. More emphasis is placed on expressive language and interactive play.
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The third year. The emphasis moves to emotional expression, pre-academic tasks and observational learning.
Challenging behaviours are addressed by using such strategies as ignoring, time out and shaping. Lovaas recommends that intervention should begin as early as possible and ideally before four years. With intensive 40 hours a week and early intervention, it was claimed that nearly half of the children (47%) in his study achieved normal educational and intellectual functioning and were successfully mainstreamed into standard classrooms (Lovaas 1987). However, the analysis of the studies shows that these results demonstrate the effects of intensity rather than the treatment itself (Jordan et al. 1998). Besides, very often, behaviours learned in one setting cannot be easily transferred to another.
How It Works
ABA uses careful behavioral observation and positive reinforcement or prompting to teach each step of a behavior. A child's behavior is reinforced with a reward when he or she performs each of the steps correctly. Undesirable behaviors, or those that interfere with learning and social skills, are watched closely. The goal is to determine what happens to trigger a behavior, and what happens after that behavior to reinforce it. The idea is to remove these triggers and reinforcers from the child's environment. New reinforcers are then used to teach the child a different behavior in response to the same trigger.
Some Established Teaching Methods Using ABA Principles or Used In Conjunction With ABA Therapy
Discrete Trial Training (DTT) - is a form of ABA. It is a short, instructional training that breaks down an activity into three distinct components: (1) an instruction by the teacher or therapist, (2) a response or behavior of the child; and (3) a consequence (what happens to the child following a behavior). (Schreibman L. 2000. "Intensive behavioral/psychoeducational treatments for autism: research needs and future directions." J Autism Dev Disord. 30(5):373-378.)
Fluency Building - The therapist helps the child build up a complex behavior by teaching each element of that behavior until it is automatic or fluent using the ABA approach of behavioral observation, reinforcement, and prompting. Then, the more complex behavior can be built from each of these fluent elements. (Binder, C. 1996. "Behavioral Fluency: Evolution of a New Paradigm." The Behavior Analyst 19:163--197.)
Functional Communication Training - seeks to teach an individual to use appropriate communication to obtain something he or she wants, instead of engaging in problem behavior (Hagopian, L., et al, 1998).
Incidental Teaching - A desired behavior is taught using behavioral techniques in the course of day-to-day experience and interaction. (Harris, S.L.P., and L.P. Delmolino. 2002. "Applied Behavior Analysis: Its Application in the Treatment of Autism and Related Disorders in Young Children." Infants & Young Children 14(3):11-17.)
Naturalistic Learning - using the child's interests as a guide to or initial teaching and instruction. This method generally is used in conjunction with DTT - ABA and uses the child's immediate interests and activities as a reward. Generally, naturalistic learning is provided in the child's natural environment.
Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) - a system that allows the child to communicate using pictures. As the child progresses, the pictures are replaced by symbols and then the symbols are combined to make simple sentences. Children with autism that have speech development problems often benefit by this program. Many times the PECS system is used in conjunction with ABA. PECS can be especially effective with nonverbal children.
Pivotal Response Training (PRT) - Type of training in which certain behaviors are assumed to be crucial for other behaviors. These pivotal behaviors are then targeted so that the behaviors that depend upon them can change as well. Studies show that child affect improves using the motivational procedures. DTT is more structed and often uses flash cards and drill-type activities, whereas PRT uses activities found in the chlid's everyday environment with task variation, in addition to following the lead of the child. (Jensen, V.K., and L.V. Sinclair. 2002. "Treatment of Autism in Young Children: Behavioral Intervention and Applied Behavior Analysis." Infants and Young Children 14(4):42-52 and Schreibman L. 2000. "Intensive behavioral/psychoeducational treatments for autism: research needs and future directions." J Autism Dev Disord. 30(5):373-378.)
Shaping and chaining - is a method of discrete trial training where the therapist does not wait for the child to actually complete the whole desired behavior. If the child partially completes the behavior or makes a move or effort towards the desired behavior, the child is rewarded.
Social Stores - are short stores or cartoons that teach children with autism socially acceptable behaviors to help them understand their own behaviors and the behaviors of others. For instance, a story might be about how everyone gets angry from time to time. The purpose of the story is that it is OK to be angry and that an appropriate response is to say, "I am angry." It also shows that it is OK to find a teacher or parent and tell the teacher or parent that the child in angry. Carol Gray is recognized for developing this methodology that is often used with high-functioning children with autism. (For more examples olf social stories go to www.Polyxo.com).
TEACCH - this is usually very structured, with separate areas for each activity. Organizing the physical environment, developing schedules and work systems, making expectations clear and explicit, and using visual materials have been effective ways of developing skills and allowing people with autism to use these skills independently of direct adult prompting and cueing. The program uses visual aids, such as pictures (may be combined with words or a symbol). Many children with autism have significant language problems and the TEACCH method enables themn to communicate using picture squares. For more complete information go to www.teacch.com.
Verbal Behavior - Use of ABA methods to analyze the child's language skills then teach and reinforce more useful and complex language skills. (Sundberg M.L., and J. Michael. 2001. "The Benefits of Skinner's Analysis of Verbal Behavior for Children with Autism." Behav Modif. 25(5):698-724.) This approach focuses on teaching specific components of expressive language first, such as mands, tacts, intraverbals, among others. Mand training teaches a child to request desired items, activities, and information. Therefore teaching the child that words are valuable and lead them to getting their wants and needs met.
ABA methods are used to support persons with autism in at least six ways:
1. to increase behaviors;
2. to teach new skill;
3. to maintain behaviors;
4. to generalize or to transfer behavior from one situation or response to
another;
5. to restrict or narrow conditions under which interfering behaviors occur;
and
6. to reduce interfering behaviors.
Evaluating ABA Programs
There are many ABA providers and often parents do not known which provider is the best one for their child. Numerous providers claim to have expertise in the field of autism. Though a provider may have ABA training, it is very important that the provider also have experience with the autism population and can develop an individualized program for your child.
Here are some suggested program guidelines to follow:
Individualized Programming
· Does the provider work within the child’s areas of strength?
· Are adaptations to the curriculum made when needed?
· Avoidance of “cook book” programming”.
· Does the agency incorporate the latest research findings into their
treatment plans?
Emphasis on Generalization
· Does generalization work begin immediately?
· Is there an emphasis to generalize skills across people?
· Is there an emphasis to generalize the way instructions are given?
· Is there an emphasis to generalize skills across learning
environments?
· Is there a push to transition to a naturally occurring reinforcement
schedule?
Supervision
· Is regular supervision considered crucial to the program success?
· Are behavioral excesses and reductive strategies reviewed at each
supervisory meeting?
· Is school progress reviewed and are there shadowing goals
outlined?
· Are all drills reviewed and demonstrated at each supervisory
meeting?
· Are the children’s programs adapted to their individual needs?
· Are the necessary referrals provided when needed?
Intensity & Consistency
· Are the hours recommended consistent with research findings?
· Are steps taken to ensure consistency?
Ø Parent / Nanny / Extended Family Training
Ø Frequent Consultation with School Staff
Ø Frequent Consultation with other providers
Acknowledgment of Biomedical Factors Impacting Treatment
· Are parents encouraged to explore medical treatments?
· Is information regarding dietary changes provided?
· Are pre-screened referrals provided when necessary?
Specialized Programs for Particular Learners
· Are Social Skills Training / Executive Function Training / Theory
of Mind Work part of the program?
· Is adequate programming for non-verbal children available if
needed?
· Are other programs brought in to aide the child’s pattern of
acquisition (PECS, Social Stories, etc.)
The above information has been taken from The Report of the Maine Administrators of Services for Children with Disabilities (MADSEC )Autism Task Force (2000)
For information about BCBA certification requirements go to the Board Analyst Certification Board website.
Abstracts/Studies
Intensive Behavioral Treatment at School for 4 to 7 Year Old Children
With Autism: A 1-Year Comparison Controlled Study
By Svein Eikeseth-Akershus College, Tristram Smith-University of Rochester, Erik Jahr and Sigmund Eldevik-Akershus Central Hospital
Outcome for Children With Autism Who Began Intensive Behavioral Treatment Between Ages 4 and 7: A Comparison Controlled Study
By Svein Eikeseth, Akershus University College, Norway, Tristram Smith, University of Rochester, NY, Erik Jahr, Akershus University Hospital, Norway and Sigmund Eldevik, Nordvoll School & Autism Centre, Norway
Early Intensive Behavioral Treatment: Replication the UCLA Model in a Community Setting
By Howard Cohen, PhD,Valley Mountain Regional Center, Stockton, CA, Mila Amerine, Dickens, M.S., Central Valley Autism Project, Modesto, CA and Tristram Smith, PhD., Department of Pediatrics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism
By Svein Eikeseth, Akershus University College, Norway
Report of the Surgeon General - Executive Summary
Chapter 3: Autism
Articles from the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis and the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
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General Articles
Applied Behavior Analysis: Addressing Cognitive and Emotional Development in Children with Autism
States Using Applied Behavior Analysis In The Education Of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Colorado
The Colorado Manual
State Profiles
Maine
Report of the Maine Administrators of Services for Children with Disabilities Autism Task Force (MADSEC)
Montana
Application for Home and Community-based Waiver
Developmental Disabilities Program (DDP) Autism Information
Participant Services
New York
New York State Department of Education
Vocational and Educational Services for Individuals with Disabilities
Center for Autism and Related Disabilities (C.A.R.D.) - University at Albany
Preschool Program
PARC Preschool
31 International Blvd.
Brewster, NY 10509
845-278-7272
http://www.putnamarc.org
PARC Preschool is a private, not-for-profit, New York State Department of Education approved evaluation site and certified pre-school program for children ages birth to five with special needs. PARC Preschool can provide home-based, center-based, and community-based services, including developmental and educational evaluations, to Putnam, Northern Westchester, and Dutchess counties. The mission of the preschool program is to provide an early start for children with special needs, so they can achieve their potential and be a valuable part of the mainstream of school and community life. The main goal of PARC Preschool is to give preschool children in its care the unique supports and academic enrichment opportunities needed by children with developmental delays/disabilities to become Kindergarten-ready and better able to function/learn within a mainstream school district classroom situation.
Disclaimer: The above information comes from a variety of sources, including the internet and is not all inclusive.
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